PSALMS

The Psalms, compiled and edited over a long period of time, is the Hebrew hymnbook.People for generations have turned to a psalm for comfort, peace, and encouragement.

Here is a variety of praises, prayers, and songs that serve several purposes: to remind Israel of its history (78, 105, 106), to offer blessings and curses (35, 69, 109, 137), to repent of sin (6, 32, 38, 51, 102), to encourage those on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (48, 120-134), to praise God (8, 19, 69, 95-100, 146-150), to cry for help in times of trouble (3, 5, 7, 9-10).

There are psalms that are arranged in such a clever fashion that each stanza starts with the next letter in the Hebrew alphabet (25, 34, 111, 112, 119). Christians look to some psalms to see hints of Jesus (22, 110).

The Psalms are gathered into five sections, each of which ends with a doxology—1-41, 42-72, 73-89, 90-106, 107-150. As you read them, consider the Psalms to be literary prayers. The literary part can be seen in the use of poetry here  with an emphasis on parallelism, which uses pairs of lines with the second line either repeating the first or giving an opposite meaning. The emphasis on prayer is evident throughout the Psalms; as one person put it, “The rest of the Bible is God’s word to the world, and the Psalms are man’s word to God.”

ESTHER

Esther covers the same time period as Ezra, about 480 B.C. when Xerxes, here called Ahasuerus, ruled Persia and plotted his wars against Greece. Many Jews, despite being allowed to return to their native land, opted to stay in Persia, leaving them at risk because they were surrounded by foreigners. The story of how the Jews were saved from utter destruction led to the establishment of the Feast of Purim (the word comes from the plural form of “lot”) in which Esther is read in the synagogue; the people boo and shout every time the villain’s name is mentioned.

JOB

This book starts a series of poetical selections (Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon) dealing with experiences of the heart rather than the history we have seen in previous books. Job, a famous book referred to often by other writers, deals with the essential problem of suffering and the nature of God—why do good people suffer? can God be understood? The difficult balance between the existence of evil and a world run by an omnipotent and just God is explored in this book through the use of some of the most powerful poetry ever written. Job can be divided into three sections—the prologue in which misfortunes strike Job (1-2),  cyclical debates on the ways of God (3:1-42:6), and the epilogue which reveals Job’s vindication (42:7-17).

1 and 2 CHRONICLES

Again these two books are really one that is continued in the stories of Ezra and Nehemiah. Chronicles covers genealogies (1 Chronicles 1-9), David as king (1 Chronicles 9-29), Solomon as king (2 Chronicles 1-9), and Judah to its destruction by Babylon and restoration under the Persian king Cyrus (2 Chronicles 10-36).

It was written for exiles who had returned to Israel after the Babylonian captivity to remind them of God’s faithfulness. Much of it echoes the information in 1 and 2 Samuel as well as 1 and 2 Kings, but it’s interesting to see what was emphasized here to reinforce the author’s themes.

EZRA, NEHEMIAH

Once more we encounter two books that were originally one in the Hebrew Bible. They cover a shift in world events—Assyria and Babylon have diminished while Persia has grown into a vast power that will rule the area for the next 200 years.

Because Persia had a different philosophy of ruling, the rulers were inclined to let conquered people who had been displaced by the previous powers go back to their native lands. So, in 537 B.C. Israelites under the leadership of Zerubbabel went back to the promised land to start rebuilding their temple (see Ezra 1-6).

Later, Ezra and Nehemiah led a group who returned to Israel in 458 B.C. to begin rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem and restoring the city (see Ezra 7-10 and Nehemiah 1-13). One interesting aspect of this return to the land is the fate of the northern ten tribes which had been carried away by Assyria. They were so dispersed and so much time had gone by before the Persians came on the scene that they never came back as a group to their land. This story of the “lost tribes of Israel” fed a great deal of speculation as to their fate.

Meanwhile, the Jews who did return (mostly from the tribe of Judah) encountered difficulties back in their land, so the leaders pushed for Jewish exclusivism—no Gentile customs or Gentile people were to be accepted by the group. This helped keep a Jewish national and religious identity intact. The key question of the returned exiles was simple—were they still the chosen people of God who could rely on his promises and who could still depend on him as had past generations?

Like the previous two books of Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings were originally one book covering the nation of Israel from the death of David to the fall of Jerusalem and the Babylonian captivity (970-587 B.C.). The basic story can be summed up as Solomon’s accession and reign (1 Kings 1-11), the story of the two separate kingdoms of Judah and Israel (1 Kings 12-2 Kings 17), and the story of Judah by itself (2 Kings 18-25).

It’s important for readers to understand what happens here regarding the name “Israel” because it can be very confusing. Originally it referred to all twelve tribes as they entered the promised land and conquered portions of it. During the time period of 1 and 2 Kings, however, it became the title of ten northern tribes who split away from the remaining two southern tribes, Judah and Benjamin.

One other item that may cause confusion is the reference to the temple built by Solomon. There are three temples mentioned in the Bible. Solomon’s is the first. After its destruction at the hands of the Babylonians in 587 B.C., a second one was built by Zerubbabel (see Ezra 5:2, 6:15-18) when some Jews returned from their captivity. But it was a poor copy of the original, so Herod rebuilt and refurbished it in 20 B.C. It was this temple that Jesus was associated with. It too was destroyed, this time by the Romans in 70 A.D. The site is now occupied by the Dome of the Rock, a Moslem mosque.

These two books are tragic to read. At the beginning there is King David, a beautiful temple, and a wide-spread kingdom. At the end there is a foreign king, a destroyed temple, and a people led into captivity as their promised land falls into the hands of unbelievers.

In the Hebrew Bible there was division between these two books, which were part of a series (including 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles) that traces the origin and development of kingship in Israel. The two books of Samuel follow the rise of the person who has been given the most space in the Old Testament—David.

What was so special about this one person in Jewish history? He is the most famous Hebrew king (he conquered a lot of territory), he gave the city of Jerusalem to Israel (it became, like Washington, D.C. to Americans, a central city to unify northern and southern peoples),  he wrote beautiful poetry (many of the psalms), and he became the focus of hope in a Messiah who would some day save his people.

The books trace the beginning of kingship in Israel—Samuel’s life (1 Samuel 1-7), Saul as first king (1 Samuel 8-15), the rise of David (1 Samuel 16-31), David as king over Judah only (2 Samuel 1-4), David as king over all Israel (2 Samuel 5-24). The time period roughly covers the years from 1100-1000 B.C.

Note that the concluding comments at the end of Samuel (2 Samuel 24:18-25) discuss the process through which David bought a threshing floor and erected an altar there; this site will later become famous as the location for Solomon’s glorious temple and the current Moslem Dome of the Mosque.

Here in the middle of historical literature is a sweet, compact, vivid, dramatic story. Unlike the books surrounding it, Ruth has no great historical events, no wars, no national heroes; instead, it focuses on the private lives of three interesting people—Naomi, Ruth, and Boaz.

The book does require some background information regarding customs mentioned here, so a reader should take a look at Leviticus 19:9-10 (harvest rites), Leviticus 25:23-28 (land redemption), Deuteronomy 24:19-22 (harvest rites), Deuteronomy 25:5-10 (marriage customs), Ezekiel 16:8 (marriage customs).

Ruth is one of only two books in the Bible named after a non-Israelite (the other is Job); sympathy is shown here toward a Gentile. Note the structure of the story, from good times to disaster to positive ending—much the same structure of modern plays and TV shows. Also, note the surprise ending when it is revealed who are the descendents of Ruth and Boaz.

This book illustrates a transition  period (1300-1000 B.C.) between Joshua, the strong national leader who brought the Israelites into the promised land, and the later kings who established a central administration for the tribes.

The story opens with a realistic description of the Jews in their promised land—they have succeeded in conquering the hill country of the interior, but they have not subdued vast areas of land, especially along the coast where people have mastered the use of iron and have become good horsemen.

Since the Israelites have accomplished neither of these two things, they are at a disadvantage in war. One of the prominent coastal people mentioned are the Philistines, a maritime nation known for wealth and a high civilization. It’s strange that today the term “philistine” suggests someone who lacks taste and sophistication when it was just the opposite during the time of the judges–the Jews were the ones who were unsophisticated and backward, according to the culture of the times. Coming on the scene to help the scattered and beleaguered tribes are the judges, more like charismatic tribal warlords than judicial officers.

Compared to Joshua, this book seems less epic with more of a focus on individuals. There is less of a feeling of progress; instead, Judges appears cyclical with periods of great distress followed by brief successes only to be followed by further troubles. Sounds familiar–people get in trouble, they cry out for help, the get out of the jam, and they fall right back into trouble.

One classic part of the book recounts in prose the success of Deborah (chapter 4), and then the next chapter tells the same story but this time in the form of a poem. Read these together to see how poetry differs from prose.

Well, another semester starts at Palomar, so it’s time to get back to what we were covering last spring. We have been going through each book of the Bible, providing a quick overview of it in the hopes that someday you will feel comfortable enough with the Bible to tackle reading the entire book. Since this is the foundational book for the entire Western world, that’s a great incentive to get started with that reading goal.

Let’s start now with a look at Joshua. This book begins the second division of the Old Testament, the books of history. The first five, called the Pentateuch, explain how Israel was organized as a people of God under the Mosaic covenant.

The next set of books look at the history of Israel in terms of that covenant. Joshua begins where Deuteronomy leaves off—the Israelites are east of the Jordan River waiting to enter their promised land. At this time (somewhere between 1400-1250 B.C.) the superpowers of the area, Egypt and Babylon, were weak, which allowed for the freedom of smaller nations like Israel to conduct their own campaigns. By the way, there is archeological evidence of the Israelites entering and attacking peoples there.

The book follows the crossing of the Jordan and the successful attack on Jericho (chapters 1-6), the attacks on southern cities (7-10), the later attacks on northern cities (11), a summary of all that happened (12), a division of the land to the tribes (13-22), and a farewell by Joshua (23-24).

Focus on the land is paramount in the story; the early chapters tell of possessing the land, the middle chapters explain the division of the land, and the concluding chapters discuss how to retain the land. The conclusion with its warning of necessary obedience to God ties in well with the following book, Judges.

Even though one may get a feeling of complete victory after reading Joshua, it’s important to know for reading the next book that the Israelites had only a foothold when the book ends. Many strongholds remain in enemy hands.

Many criticize what they call genocide here as the Israelites try to wipe out the Canaanites. But it’s important to realize several things—these people were being punished for sin (the Canaanites were terrible people who conducted child sacrifice and other horrible acts), the Israelites themselves were often punished by God for their own sins, the Canaanites were given the opportunity to surrender and live peaceably with the Jews, the language of Joshua may be hyperbolic (overdramatic word choice) because we see future chapters talking about the Canaanites who were still there.

NUMBERS

When you read chapters 1-4 and 26, you can see the book got its name from the census conducted in these chapters. However, the Hebrew word for this book seems more appropriate—it’s translated “in the desert.” Thirty-eight years of desert wanderings are covered here, so it’s very different from Leviticus, a static book that took only one month and involved no travel.

The story moves from Mt. Sinai to Kadesh (east of the Dead Sea where the people were delayed due to rebellion) to Moab (just east of Canaan, their promised land). We see three sections here, all dealing with the promised land—preparation to go, the journey itself, and new preparations inheritance in the land. Numbers mixes narrative with legal material as the author discusses God’s elaboration of his principles and the rebellion of his people. The literature here covers narrative, law, administrative records, and speeches, so it is quite a diverse book.

DEUTERONOMY

 The last book of the Pentateuch, Deuteronomy means “repetition of the law,” but the Hebrew term for the book makes more sense, “these are the words,” since this is the farewell address of Moses. He is now 120 years old, he stands at the edge of the promised land, and he dramatically exhorts his people to remember their past and renew their covenant. The theme is one of total commitment delivered in an warm, personal style that is so appealing that Jesus quoted from it extensively. In Deuteronomy Moses speaks three times (chapters 1-4, 5-26, 29-30) to the new generation that has grown up out in the desert. He feels he must remind them of many things—the two sides to the covenant (God’s promises and the people’s obedience), characteristics of God, the value of social justice, the importance of personal ethics, and the need for neighborly responsibility. Once again, like much of the rest of the Pentateuch, Deuteronomy combines narration with legal sections.

The second book of the law, Exodus means “going out,” or “departure.” Along with the remaining three books (Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy), Exodus tells the sweeping story of the birth and odyssey of a nation as well as the biography of the great Jewish hero, Moses. It opens about four hundred years after the close of Genesis; the children of Israel are now slaves. Exodus tells the dramatic story of two events that led to nationhood—the escape from slavery and the revelation of God’s law(“torah”).

After the big sweeps of history in Genesis and Exodus, the book of Leviticus offers a respite since it only covers about one month of time. Even though the title refers to the duties of the Levite priests in the tabernacle, the book also covers duties of the entire population.  It’s interesting to note that physical health is stressed as much as spiritual health; many of the regulations have to do with food and sanitation. The way ritual is stressed in Leviticus gives it the feel of a picture book to help the people of Israel understand more clearly their relationship and responsibilities to God. For example, each sacrifice had its own particular meaning, but it also carried spiritual and symbolic meanings. Much later, Christians saw much in this book as foreshadowing Jesus.

When the book opens, the children of Israel are at Mt. Sinai; they have already been told how to build the tabernacle and how to set up the institute of  priesthood to  carry on service in this holy place. The organization of the book appears to focus on how to love God(the first half) and how to love your neighbor(the second half). The concluding sections dealing with the economics of land and property lead to Numbers and Deuteronomy, the last books in the Pentateuch, in which the people prepare to possess their promised land.